Models of non-ferrous metal production in the western and eastern areas of the Yamnaya culture

The paper summarizes data from the analytical studies of non-ferrous metal in two areas of the Yamnaya (Pit-grave) culture, i. e. the western area (the North Pontic region) and the eastern area (the Southern Urals and the Middle Tobol basin). Methods of spectral, atomic emission, electron microprobe and metallographic analyses were employed. The materials described demonstrate existence of two different metal production models used by the Yamnaya population. The difference in the models is stipulated by different directions of historical and metallurgical contacts, availability of accessible ore deposits, maintenance of traditional technologies or development of innovation methods of arsenical bronze production. Certain technological similarities between the Urals and the North Pontic metalworking were identified only for the early development stage of the North Pontic center of metal production. In the subsequent period metal production of the Yamnaya population groups which lived in the North Pontic region demonstrates other technological traditions of producing tools and jewelry from low-alloyed arsenical bronze that came from western raw material sources. The Urals craftsmen employed techniques of casting heavy tools from local Kargaly oxidized copper in open and composite closed moulds with high-temperature modes of heat treatment.